One day toward the end of the year 432 BC, the citizens of Athens
\nreceived some very disturbing news: representatives from the city-state
\nof Sparta had arrived in town and presented to the Athenian governing
\ncouncil new terms of peace. If Athens did not agree to these terms,
\nthen Sparta would declare war. Sparta was Athens\u2019s archenemy and in
\nmany ways its polar opposite. Athens led a league of democratic states
\nin the region, while Sparta led a confederation of oligarchies, known as
\nthe Peloponnesians. Athens depended on its navy and on its wealth\u2014it
\nwas the preeminent commercial power in the Mediterranean. Sparta
\ndepended on its army. It was a total military state. Up until then, the
\ntwo powers had largely avoided a direct war because the consequences
\ncould be devastating\u2014not only could the defeated side lose its influence in the region,<\/p>\n
but its whole way of life could be put in
\njeopardy\u2014certainly for Athens its democracy and its wealth. Now,
\nhowever, war seemed inevitable and a sense of impending doom
\nquickly settled on the city.<\/p>\n
A few days later, the Athenian Assembly met on the Pnyx Hill
\noverlooking the Acropolis to debate the Spartan ultimatum and decide
\nwhat to do. The Assembly was open to all male citizens, and on that
\nday close to ten thousand of them crowded on the hill to participate in
\nthe debate. The hawks among them were in a state of great agitation\u2014
\nAthens should seize the initiative and attack Sparta first, they said.
\nOthers reminded them that in a land battle the Spartan forces were
\nnearly unbeatable. Attacking Sparta in this way would play straight
\ninto their hands. The doves were all in favor of accepting the peace
\nterms, but as many pointed out, that would only show fear and
\nembolden the Spartans. It would only give them more time to enlarge
\ntheir army. Back and forth went the debate, with emotions getting
\nheated, people shouting, and no satisfactory solution in sight.
\nThen toward the end of the afternoon, the crowd suddenly grew
\nquiet as a familiar figure stepped forward to address the Assembly.
\nThis was Pericles, the elder statesman of Athenian politics, now over
\nsixty years old. Pericles was beloved, and his opinion would matter
\nmore than anyone\u2019s, but despite the Athenians\u2019 respect for him, they
\nfound him a very peculiar leader\u2014more of a philosopher than a
\npolitician. To those old enough to remember the start of his career, it
\nwas truly surprising how powerful and successful he had become. He
\ndid nothing the usual way.<\/p>\n
In the earliest years of their democracy, before Pericles had
\nappeared on the scene, the Athenians had preferred a certain
\npersonality type in their leaders\u2014men who could give an inspiring,
\npersuasive speech and had a flair for drama. On the battlefield these
\nmen were risk takers; they often pushed for military campaigns that
\nthey could lead, giving them a chance to gain glory and attention. They
\nadvanced their careers by representing some faction in the Assembly\u2014
\nlandowners, soldiers, aristocrats\u2014and doing everything they could to
\nfurther its interests. This led to highly divisive politics. Leaders would
\nrise and fall in cycles of a few years, but the Athenians were fine with
\nthis; they mistrusted anyone who lasted long in power.<\/p>\n
Then Pericles entered public life around 463 BC, and Athenian
\npolitics would never be the same. His first move was the most unusual
\nof all. Although he came from an illustrious aristocratic family, he
\nallied himself with the growing lower and middle classes of the city\u2014
\nfarmers, oarsmen in the navy, the craftsmen who were the pride of
\nAthens. He worked to increase their voice in the Assembly and give
\nthem greater power in the democracy. This was not some small faction
\nhe now led but the majority of Athenian citizens. It would seem
\nimpossible to control such a large, unruly mob of men, with their
\nvaried interests, but he was so fervent in increasing their power that he
\nslowly gained their trust and backing.<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Part b’ follows<\/em><\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n The laws of human nature<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n ROBERT GREENE<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" One day toward the end of the year 432 BC, the citizens of Athens received some very disturbing news: representatives from the city-state of Sparta had arrived in town and presented to the Athenian governing council new terms of peace. 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